Argos: Rival of Sparta

The plain of Argolis is located in the northeastern Peloponnesus.  It is about 500 square miles in area.  Mountains surround it on three sides with the Aegean Sea to the east.  It was a fertile plain, renowned by Homer for its excellent horses.  Two rivers, the Inachus and the Erasinus, as well as a number of smaller streams provided abundant water for agricultural production, necessary to sustain a relatively large population. Archaeological finds show continuous human settlement in the area from about 5000 B.C. beginning with a small settlement at the foot of Aspida Hill.

Argos: The agora with Aspida Hill in background.

The city of Argos grew from the village at the foot of Aspida Hill.  Argos and the surrounding citadels of Mycenae, Tiryns and Midea were important Bronze Age sites that figured greatly in Greek mythology, especially the Trojan War cycle.  Agamemnon was king of Mycenae. Diomedes led the Argives at Troy.  Bronze Age Argos was an important place.  Homer sometimes used the name Argive for all the Greek forces fighting at Troy.

Argos and vicinity

Most Bronze Age sites were destroyed not long after the Trojan War.  Dorians gradually assumed control.  A dynasty of kings claiming descent from Heracles began to reign at Argos about 900. The power of the kings was soon reduced to the benefit of the aristocracy. By the middle of the eighth century Argos had become the leading state in the Peloponnesus, ruling all of the northeastern part of the peninsular and all of the coast down to Cape Malea.  She also controlled the island of Cythera and probably Aegina as well.  

Argolis

Argos was not just a Peloponnesian power at this time, but was also involved in the wider Greek world.  She may have sided with Eretria, Megara and Miletus against Chalcis, Samos and Corinth in the Lelantine War, which likely took place towards the end of the eighth century.  She certainly backed, albeit unsuccessfully, Messenia against the equally aggressive Sparta in the First Messenian War.  Sparta now became Argos’ most determined rival for dominance of the peninsular.

About 675 a new king came to the Argive throne; Pheidon.  Although a Heraclid of the regular line of kings, he was a king like no other before him. Pheidon revived the traditional power of the kings by aligning himself with the common folk against the aristocracy.  He instituted far reaching land reforms which appear to have created a larger citizen base.  This resulted in more men capable of serving as heavy infantry.  He was thus able to field a large army.  At the same time he changed the style of fighting from independent combat favored by the aristocratic army to a linear style called the phalanx.  The Argive phalanx met and devastatingly defeated an aristocratic style Spartan army at Hysiae in 669.  The phalanx was soon adopted by all Greek armies and became the standard fighting style.

Map (in Greek) showing extant of Argos under Pheidon

After Pheidon Argos began to decline.  Large swaths of territory were lost to Sparta, including Cythera.  Argos also lost control of the coastal cities and Aegina. By the middle of the 6^th century Sparta had replaced Argos as the most dominant state in the Peloponnesus.     

That Most Beautiful and Excellent City

The Isthmus of Corinth joins northern and southern Greece.  At its narrowest point it is just three miles wide.  The city of Corinth is located immediately south of the isthmus.  Visitors to ancient Corinth entering the city from the east would pass through the Cenchrean Gate.  Here they would find themselves in the midst of the Craneum, the wealthy quarter of the town.  There was a small park for people to stroll in or picnic, all the time surrounded by images of wealth and beauty.  To the west lay the upper and lower agoras, the market places with their shops.  To the south, towering over a third of a mile into the sky above the city was the rocky eminence of Acrocorinth, at the very top of which was the Temple of Aphrodite, the patroness of the city. “Prosperous Corinth”, wrote the poet Pindar, “there dwell Eunomia (Order) and her sisters Dike (Justice) and Eirene (Peace).  Cicero referred to Corinth as “that most beautiful and excellent city”.

Acrocorinth from the Temple of Apollo

Archaeology has shown that the site of Corinth has been occupied since 6500 BC.  But the area was sparsely inhabited before the Mycenaean period.  The lack of significant habitation seems strange given that Corinth’s location astride the only road connecting northern and southern Greece should have made it an important location from the earliest times.  In fact it doesn’t seem that Corinth was heavily occupied until about 900 by Dorians.  Nevertheless Corinth remained a backwater, ruled by priest-kings of the Bacchiad dynasty for more than a century.  In 747 the last king was deposed and replaced with annually elected officials. The chief executive was the prytanis. There was also a polemarch who was in charge of the armed forces. It’s probable that there was a council but this isn’t attested.  A tight oligarchy was imposed with Bacchiads still basically in charge. 

In 657 Bacchiad rule came to an end.  The Polemarch Cypselus, who was a Bacchiad on his mother’s side, seized power, proclaimed himself tyrant, and sent the Bacchiads into exile.  In 627 Cypselus died and was succeeded by his son Periander.  Corinth prospered under Cypselid rule.  The ports of Cenchreae on the Saronic Gulf and Lecheum on the Corinthian Gulf were developed.  Corinth benefitted from the collection of port taxes and portage fees from goods and ships that were hauled across the isthmus.  To facilitate the latter, the diolkos, a kind of early marine railway was built during Periander’s time. The Corinthian economy boomed under the Cypselids.  The city became famous for its high quality bronze and Corinthian ware pottery. Corinth also became a center for shipbuilding. These developments led to a heavy investment in trade.  Corinth became wealthy. Much of that wealth was invested in internal adornment. Corinthian architecture, Corinthian music were the best in Greece. “Corinthian” was a term that became synonymous with excellence.  Corinth was a beautiful city and she liked showing off.  To that end the Isthmian Games were begun in 582. The games were held every other year and attracted visitors from throughout Greece.

Corinthian colonies of Corcyra, Epidamnus, Apollonia and Ambracia

Corinth’s trading interests can be seen in her founding of many colonies.  Corinthian colonization actually began under Bacchiad rule.  Corcyra (Corfu) and Syracuse (Sicily) were founded in 734/733.  Ambracia, Anactorium, Apollonia and Epidamnus were colonies founded in northwest Greece in whole, or in part, by Corinth, between 650 and 600, while Corinth was under the Cypselids.  Potidaea, in northern Greece, was the last colony founded by Corinth around 600. Potidaea was unusual in a couple of ways. It was the only Corinthian colony not located along the western trade route and it continued a direct political connection with Corinth, which sent out annual magistrates to govern the place.  Most Greek colonies, while maintaining ceremonial and kinship ties with their mother cities, were politically independent; sometimes extremely so.  Corcyra, for example, even became an implacable rival of Corinth.

German map of Corinth and environs

Greek states invariably got into disputes with their neighbors.  Corinth was no exception to this rule.  She quarreled with Argos to the south from time to time but her main nemesis was her neighbor to the north, Megara. The two cities warred almost constantly over their boundary.  After the Corinthians succeeded in taking the Perachora peninsular, Megara, which was also a great colonizing city, may have allied herself with Eretria.  Corinth possibly responded by allying with Eretria’s rival Chalcis.  On this basis it’s possible that Corinth engaged in the conflict known as the Lelantine War. She certainly won her fight with Megara and their mutual border was pushed back to Mt. Geraneia.

Periander was succeeded by his nephew Psammetichus who was assassinated in 581. The Corinthians then established a long lived oligarchy that extended the franchise to all but the poorest citizens. About the middle of the 6th century Corinth entered into an alliance with Sparta; the Peloponnesian League. Although subordinate to Sparta, Corinth’s interests would, nevertheless, drive many of the league’s actions and the city would be a major player in the conflicts of the fifth and fourth centuries.

             

Thebes and the Boeotian League

The Cadmeia

Central Greece is dominated by the large plain of Boeotia.  The Theban acropolis, the Cadmeia, was occupied during the Bronze Age and was an important Mycenaean site.  Egyptian records mention Thebes as one of four Danaan kingdoms.  The Danaans were one of the names Homer used to refer to the Greeks in the Iliad.

Ruins of the Cadmeia

Although stories about Mycenaean period Thebes are prominent in Greek mythology, actual historical details of this early time have not been preserved.  Archaeological investigation has shown that the Cadmeia was destroyed at the end of the Bronze Age, which corresponds to the time attributed to the Dorian invasions.  If the Dorians did sack Thebes, they did not remain there. In classical times the people of Thebes and Boeotia spoke the Aeolian Greek dialect, which may have developed from a local variety of Achaean Greek.

Formation of the Boeotian League

An aristocracy, the Spartoi, ruled Thebes for many years by maintaining tight control over land ownership.  Located approximately in the center of the Boeotian plain, Thebes was ideally situated to dominate Boeotia.  By the end of the 6^th century B.C. Thebes was the acknowledge leader of what has become known as the Boeotian League.

Boeotia

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Exactly how, and when, the Boeotian League came into existence is debated. The Boeotians came together to defeat Thessalian invaders at Ceressus, probably sometime in the latter part of the sixth century B. C.  This battle may have been the event which gave impetus to the development of the league.  The Thebans appear to have gained control of the league early on.  Theban dominance was resisted by some of the Boeotian communities.  Orchomenos was an early rival and Thespiae appears to have been a center of opposition to Theban control, especially in the 5^th century.

Conflict with Athens

Plataea was the Boeotian town most adamant in its opposition to Thebes.  It steadfastly refused to submit to the Theban controlled league, seeking an alliance with Athens to maintain its independence.  According to Herodotus the alliance with Athens was suggested by the Spartans to sow enmity between the Athenians and Thebans.  A war did breakout between the Athenians and Thebans near the end of the 6^th century, which was won by Athens.  The Athenians annexed the area around Oropus, which gave them direct access to the island of Euboea.  Plataean independence was secured but Theban-Athenian relations would remain hostile for a century.

Organization of the Boeotian League

The early organization of the Boeotian League underscores its origin as a military alliance.  It has been described as a hoplite oligarchy.  Only heavily armed infantrymen (hoplites) and cavalrymen were allowed to vote.  These were placed in 11 divisions, called Meroi, based on population size.  Each division elected its general, called a Boeotarch, 60 councillors and a number of judges (dicasts). Large cities like Thebes and Thespiae provided two divisions in the 5^th century.  Smaller towns might be grouped together to provide a single division. 

The People Rule

Early History

Attica is the name given to the mountainous peninsular that juts out from the Greek mainland into the Aegean Sea.   Its topography is dominated by four principle peaks – Parnes, Pentelicus, Hymettus and Laurium.  Interspersing these peaks are four smallish plains.  The coast is extremely rocky but is ideal for many fine harbors.

Attica had been inhabited for several thousand years before the first Greek speaking peoples arrived around 1900 BC.  By 1400 BC Athens had become an important Bronze Age center. From the early days Athens was governed by kings.  The kings and other officials were always chosen from a smallish group of noble families called the Eupatridae (" Good Fathers"). 

Although Athens went “dark” along with the rest of Greece about 1200 BC, it appears to have been basically unaffected by the Dorian invasions.  Eupatrid rule at Athens continued through the so-called Greek Dark Age.  The most notable change is a steady reduction in the powers of the king.  By the mid-eighth century the king is just one of many officials, called archons.  Real power was exercised by the Council of the Areopagus.  This body was composed entirely of Eupatrid members and acted as sovereign power in all matters.

Under Eupatird rule Athens was not governed by a written constitution but rather by oral law.  The people began to demand a written code that everyone could follow.  But it took a failed attempt to overthrow the government and dissatisfaction among many Eupatrids themselves before it was finally decided to adopt a written constitution.  The new laws, credited to Draco, were inscribed on wooden tablets that were set up in the market place – the Agora, where everyone could see them.  That was the good thing, the only good thing about Draco’s code.  The bad thing was that the laws were incredibly harsh and favored the Eupatrids.  Within a generation they were set aside, replaced by the Constitution of Solon.

Solon and Sectional Rivalry

Solon held the archonship at Athens in 594 BC.  It's been said that his reforms changed Athenian society from one based on birth to one based on wealth. It’s probably more accurate to say that Athenian society, with its new emphasis on commerce, had already changed by Solon’s time and all Solon did was write new laws that reflected this change.  

Solon’s laws recognized four property classes. The new laws threw open the magistracies to any man, regardless of birth, who met the highest class property qualifications and granted the franchise to, at least, the upper three classes. Sovereignty was now vested in the Assembly of the people and a Council of 400 drawn from the four traditional Athenian tribes.  Eupatrid influence was not entirely removed.  The Council of the Areopagus continued as “guardian of the laws” and, since most Eupatrids were wealthy, they continued in practice to hold most of the offices and positions of influence.  But the Eupatrid monopoly of the government was ended.

Within a generation of Solon’s reforms, another problem popped up.  The topography of Attica contains three natural divisions of the land - Diacria, Pedias and Paralia (see map).  The population of Paralia was small but its harbors supported a large number of “new money” individuals, who had grown wealthy off of trade.  Megacles was their leader.  A man with the very Spartan sounding name of Lycurgus, led the wealthy land owners of the Pedias.  The ancient sources don’t tell us specifically what the dispute between the Pedias and the Paralia was about.  That personal rivalries among the leaders played a part is beyond doubt, but in general the men of the Paralia tended to look outward, while the men of the Pedias looked inward.  The population of Diacria was larger than that of the other two regions combined but the inhabitants were unable to exercise any influence because it lacked a leader.   It may also have been that the area lacked enough individuals of wealth to exert influence.  The region was populated mostly by mountain herdsmen and small, probably mostly, subsistence farmers, whose main concern was to make a decent living.

Tyranny and Democracy

Pisistratus, who was a popular war hero, decided to take up the cause of these impoverished men. Unable to affect change via legislation, he seized power by force, with the help of Megacles, in 561.  As Tyrant of Athens Pisistratus implemented a program that not only benefitted the poorer citizens, but also simultaneously promoted trade and enriched the citizenry as a whole.  He was a popular leader and mild ruler. 

Pisistratus was succeeded by his sons Hippias and Hipparchus who continued the moderate style of their father's regime. In 514 Hipparchus was assassinated.  Although his murder was really over a personal quarrel the conspirators had intended to bring down the tyranny by killing both brothers.  Hippias now become paranoid and unleashed a reign of terror.  Suspected enemies were exiled or killed.   

Hippias was then expelled from Athens by a Spartan army led by King Cleomenes, who tried to install an aristocratic oligarchy.  But the people rallied behind Cleisthenes, the son of Megacles and banished the aristocratic party.  

Cleisthenes returned to Athens and enacted constitutional reforms.  He kept the Solonian property qualifications.  All citizens, regardless of wealth, were eligible to participate in the Assembly.  His most sweeping reform was the establishment of the new tribal system. The four traditional tribes were replaced by ten artificially created new ones named after legendary Athenian heroes.  The country districts were broken up into townships, called demes.  The tribes were divided into thirds.  One deme from each of the old regions, more or less, was assigned to each tribe. This ended the old sectional differences.  A Council of 500 replaced the old Council of 400.  There were 50 members chosen from each tribe by lot.  The archons were still elected annually, as were the ten generals, one from each tribe.  Athens was now a true democracy.  The people ruled.        

    

The Rise of Sparta

Foundation and Early Expansion

The Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus was completed about 800 BC.  By 750 Dorian Argos dominated the northern Peloponnesus and the eastern coastal plain.  Around the same time a unified Spartan state was established by kings Archelaus and Charillaus. The Spartan kings expanded their state north towards the Eurotas during their reigns (ca. 775-750). 

Under King Teleclus (ca. 745) the Spartans made their first move southward.  Pharis, Geronthrai and Amyclae were annexed.  Geronthrai was settled by Spartan colonists but the Amyclaeans were admitted to Spartan citizenship. About the same time Spartan colonists were sent across Taygetus to three sites in the Nedon valley of Messenia.

Around 740 King Teleclus was assassinated by Messenians, which soon provided the Spartans with an excuse for a war of annexation.  It was probably about this time that the Spartans began a mostly peaceful expansion south to the coastal cities. 

The First Messenian War

A few years later the First Messenian War (ca. 735-715) began.  This war was possibly tied in with the larger conflict known as the Lelantine War (ca. 730-710).  It was around this time that the Spartans captured Helos and enslaved the inhabitants.  By 715 northern Messenia had been annexed. The southern part of Messenia may have retained autonomy, however. 

After the Messenian War a large number of Spartan colonists were sent to Tarentum in southern Italy. This event may be the first indication of social unrest at Sparta.. 

The Lycurgan Reforms   

The reforms of Lycurgus, or the first of the reforms attributed to him, were enacted in 676, during the reign of kings Polydorus and Theopompus.  The Great Rhetra was probably introduced at this time, granting power to the assembly of the people.  Land allotments were made and the ephorate established or more likely reformed.

Sometime after 665 there was a sort of counter-revolution at Sparta and the kings and elders were allowed to set aside the decisions of the popular assembly if they deemed them unwise for the state.

The Second Messenian War

Around 675 King Polydorus began a war with Argos. The Argives entered into an alliance with the Arcadians.  In 669/668 Polydorus was defeated by the Argives at Hysiae.  In the following year the Spartans instituted the Gymnopediae in remembrance of their defeat. Polydorus was then assassinated by a disgruntled aristocrat and Lycurgus may have gone into exile about this time.

An anti-Spartan alliance was now formed between Argos, Elis, Sicyon and Arcadia.  Sparta's only allies were Lepreum, and maybe Corinth.  Messenia, possibly inspired by the Spartan defeat at Hysiae, now rose in revolt, inaugurating the Second Messenian War (ca. 650-620).  The Spartans captured Phigaleia in Arcadia in 659 but later lost it.  The oracle of Delphi was supporting the allies at this time.  The Spartans were hard pressed by the Messenians and Arcadians in the upper Pamisos and Nedon valleys, but were able to hold on to the Stenyclarus plain.  Fortunately for the Spartans the Argive King Pheidon died about this time and Argos became preoccupied with Corinth. As a result of this respite the Spartans were able to concentrate on the Messenians. Nevertheless, it took a long time for the Spartans to subdue Messenia.  The struggle possibly led to many military reforms and austerity measures that later tradition also attributed to Lycurgus.  The Messenians were finally subdued and a period of peace ensued from about 620 to 590.

The Peloponnesian League

Under King Meltas the Argives again allied themselves with Arcadia in the 580s or possibly somewhat later.  When the Spartans marched into Arcadia their army was defeated and forced to surrender at Tegea.  The prisoners were placed in the chains which they had intended to use on the Arcadians.  Hence the engagement was called the Battle of the Fetters.

Around 560 Meltas was exiled from Argos and the Arcadian-Argive alliance ended. A few years later the Spartans changed their policy regarding Arcadia and other neighboring states.  Under the leadership of Chilon and his followers the Spartans entered into alliances with Arcadia, Elis, Sicyon, Corinth and other Peloponnesian states.  Argos remained an implacable foe but she was now isolated.  This alliance, dubbed the Peloponnesian League by modern historians, made Sparta the undisputed master of the Peloponnesus and the most powerful Greek state at the time.  Sparta even entered into an alliance with the non-Greek kingdom of Lydia in Asia Minor.  In 546/545 the Argives were crushed in the Battle of the Champions.  The Spartans annexed Thyreatis, the entire coastal plain and the island of Cythera from Argos.  The Spartans were now so confident of their own power that they even issued a challenge to the Persian king Cyrus the Great to leave the Greeks of Asia alone.

Sparta had risen from a collection of villages to the greatest state in Greece.  It wasn't an easy process.  She fought with all three of her neighbors and ultimately dealt with each differently, but effectively.  She conquered Messenia, allied with Arcadia, and isolated Argos.  Sparta had become the largest city-state in Greece, in terms of geographic size and influence.  Her military reputation was unequaled.  She was poised to expand beyond the Peloponnesus.  Only two things would hold her back from going beyond the Isthmus of Corinth.  One thing was herself.  I'll discuss that in a future post. The other thing was another city - Athens.